Ella S.
*temp banned*
== What is Stoicism? ==
Stoicism was a movement that originated with Zeno of Citium and his student, Chryssipus. It was a development of Cynic philosophy, which in itself was an elaboration of Socratic ideas. In order to understand what Stoicism is, we must first understand the key ideas that it is founded upon and what Stoicism adds.
In the surviving Socratic discourses, Socrates rarely makes a positive argument. Instead, he engages in what one might call a form of skeptical inquiry, which is at the heart of the Socratic method. This on its own would go on to influence Pyrrho and later the philosophical skeptics, although Socrates himself is not quite as radical in his discourses.
Socrates seems to lead his interlocutors to a small handful of positive assertions which he cannot find any reasonable doubt against. Among this small handful of assertions is the idea that virtue constitutes a kind of knowledge. This position is known as Socratic intellectualism. Due to the fact that this conclusion is reached through deduction in the discourses, Socratic intellectualism also constitutes a form of moral rationalism, which is the belief that reason is the source of moral truths.
Entire books can be, and have been, written on understanding Socratic ethics. I have read several of them, as well as the debates that surround them to this day. There is quite a bit that remains controversial about Socratic ethics, and this is partially due to the fairly well-attested fact that Socrates's intellectualism does not form a complete ethical philosophy on its own. Rather, it laid a foundation of common ground upon which later philosophers could build upon.
This was no secret to the ancients, either. While Socrates and his student, Plato, were highly influential in ancient Greco-Roman philosophy, many different currents of thought spawned from their ideas. For the purposes of this post in particular, we will stick to his idea of Socratic intellectualism, because it is key to understanding Stoic normative theory.
Cynicism developed Socratic intellectualism into a philosophy of radical asceticism. In a teleological sense, if knowledge is good, then that which produces knowledge is instrumentally valuable. Reason leads to knowledge, and so reason is valuable. If knowledge is the only good, then anything that does not lead to knowledge is not valuable.
The Cynics realized that social conventions of their time were not in accordance with the nature of reason in this way. In fact, their society valued many things which did not lead to knowledge, such as wealth, social status, and most material possessions. Accordingly, Cynics became well-known for living as homeless nudists, and were often jobless. In fact, they openly mocked and rejected figures who held high status, viewing them with moral disdain.
More than this, the concept of cosmopolitanism was invented by the Cynics, which would later play an important role in Stoicism. Cosmopolitanism was, in part, a consequence of the rejection of society and its conventions. Cynics considered themselves to be "of the world" or of nature, not belonging to any nation or state whose land they might happen to occupy. They specifically antagonized the elitism of the concept of national citizenship and, in declaring themselves citizens of the world, made it clear that their way of life could be taken up by anyone without such artificial boundaries.
This might sound like liberal rhetoric, but it's very important to understanding the origins of Stoicism and the root of its ethical system.
Without cosmopolitanism, Zeno of Citium would never have taught philosophy. Zeno, the founder of Stoicism, was a dark-skinned immigrant to Athens. His mentor, Crates of Thebes, was a Cynic. Through Crates, Zeno was able to obtain a deeper education in philosophy and pass on his ideas to his followers. This idea of cosmopolitanism became a mainstay in the Stoic philosophy of justice, transforming itself into a form of radical egalitarianism.
Zeno described what his ideal cosmopolitan society would look like in his version of "Republic." While only fragments of this work and its exegesis from his students survived, these fragments on their own tell us quite a bit about the consequences of Zeno's ideas.
Beyond this, Zeno mitigated the asceticism of the Cynics by affirming that some things, such as wealth, could have value if they were used for good ends, such as funding schools. As Stoicism progressed, Stoics mostly remained in agreement with Cynic doctrine, often considering the homeless nudists of Cynicism to be practicing genuine virtue. They never abandoned the underlying ascetic ideas entirely and, for the most part, seemed to consider the Cynics' lifestyles as compatible with Stoicism, even if not all Stoics lived in the way that Cynicism demanded.
There was some disagreement, however. Later Stoics would criticize asceticism as being irrationally preoccupied with fleeing pleasure. While there might not be value or reason in collecting, for example, an expensive vase, Stoics still believed that one could have such a possession without moral corruption. The Cynics might dismiss the vase as valueless, and the Stoics would agree, but the Stoics did not see owning such a vase as necessarily harmful.
== Natural Purpose ==
A key idea to Stoicism, which has its roots in Cynicism, is a focus on Nature. Nature, in this context, is not wilderness. Rather, "Nature" is a general term that refers to the natural, physical world.
Stoicism was a predecessor of and a major influence on epistemic rationalism, holding that logic alone is the source of all truth. They also adopted the moral rationalism of Socrates, holding that reason could give us insight into important moral truths. The way that reason could lead to moral knowledge, to the Cynics and the Stoics, was through rationally analyzing Nature.
Similar to biological functionalism and evolutionary teleonomy, the Stoics believed in natural purposes. A heart's natural purpose, for instance, is to pump blood. A leg's natural purpose is locomotion. An eye's natural purpose is to see.
Reason's natural purpose included both practical reason and theoretical reason. Under practical reason, one should be able to work towards long-term goals even if this means rejecting immediate gratification, and this is tied to the virtues of temperance and courage. Under theoretical reason, one should be proficient in logic, in understanding the world around them, as well as in knowing what things are and are not useful or valuable, and this is tied to the virtues of prudence and justice.
Due to the fact that practical reason is responsible for discipline, reason was viewed as a kind of ruler of the whole of an individual person. At least, reason's natural purpose was thought to be such. Despite this, people could still think and act contrary to reason, which was considered to be unnatural. While this was expected to some extent from children, since they are still maturing and developing, an adult who acts irrationally would be considered to be acting against their own ideal human nature.
== Virtues of Dispassion ==
Irrationality was thought to mostly be the product of the "pathon," which is variously translated in English as passions or emotions. The passions were often divided between irrational aversions and appraisals, as well as whether the object of these temperaments was in the past or the future. They could then be further divided to name almost every human emotion, aside from the emotions that were considered to be a part of the eupathon. The eupathon are not really morally relevant to this topic, in my opinion, so I am omitting them here.
The passions are a somewhat difficult concept to translate correctly. Ancient Greeks did not have the same psychological concepts that modern English speakers have. Passions were understood more as a kind of judgment, usually an erroneous or mistaken assumption about value. "Passion" was, in essence, a form of what we might call "emotional reasoning."
Due to the fact that the Stoics adopted the moral rationalism of Socrates, they fully believed that objective value could be ascertained through reason alone. Emotions (and "moral intuitions") merely obscured morality and were not considered to be valid sources of truth. Logic was the source of truth, after all, and it was considered the responsibility of the individual to live up to that natural purpose by studying and mastering logic.
Displays of excessive emotion were seen as the product of passion and a lack of discipline. Laughter in particular was often singled out as a sign of stupidity to the ancient Stoics. This is where capital "S" Stoicism gets its association with lowercase "s" stoicism. It's why Stoics are often stereotyped as inexpressive, often to the point of being comically serious or having nerves of steel. Of course, in practice, not all Stoics lived up to or even sought out these extremes.
A lack of passion or emotion was called apatheia, translated as apathy, dispassion, or emotionlessness. It was not normally sought out for its own sake, but it was thought to be a direct product of a mature person living in accordance with their rational nature.
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Stoicism was a movement that originated with Zeno of Citium and his student, Chryssipus. It was a development of Cynic philosophy, which in itself was an elaboration of Socratic ideas. In order to understand what Stoicism is, we must first understand the key ideas that it is founded upon and what Stoicism adds.
In the surviving Socratic discourses, Socrates rarely makes a positive argument. Instead, he engages in what one might call a form of skeptical inquiry, which is at the heart of the Socratic method. This on its own would go on to influence Pyrrho and later the philosophical skeptics, although Socrates himself is not quite as radical in his discourses.
Socrates seems to lead his interlocutors to a small handful of positive assertions which he cannot find any reasonable doubt against. Among this small handful of assertions is the idea that virtue constitutes a kind of knowledge. This position is known as Socratic intellectualism. Due to the fact that this conclusion is reached through deduction in the discourses, Socratic intellectualism also constitutes a form of moral rationalism, which is the belief that reason is the source of moral truths.
Entire books can be, and have been, written on understanding Socratic ethics. I have read several of them, as well as the debates that surround them to this day. There is quite a bit that remains controversial about Socratic ethics, and this is partially due to the fairly well-attested fact that Socrates's intellectualism does not form a complete ethical philosophy on its own. Rather, it laid a foundation of common ground upon which later philosophers could build upon.
This was no secret to the ancients, either. While Socrates and his student, Plato, were highly influential in ancient Greco-Roman philosophy, many different currents of thought spawned from their ideas. For the purposes of this post in particular, we will stick to his idea of Socratic intellectualism, because it is key to understanding Stoic normative theory.
Cynicism developed Socratic intellectualism into a philosophy of radical asceticism. In a teleological sense, if knowledge is good, then that which produces knowledge is instrumentally valuable. Reason leads to knowledge, and so reason is valuable. If knowledge is the only good, then anything that does not lead to knowledge is not valuable.
The Cynics realized that social conventions of their time were not in accordance with the nature of reason in this way. In fact, their society valued many things which did not lead to knowledge, such as wealth, social status, and most material possessions. Accordingly, Cynics became well-known for living as homeless nudists, and were often jobless. In fact, they openly mocked and rejected figures who held high status, viewing them with moral disdain.
More than this, the concept of cosmopolitanism was invented by the Cynics, which would later play an important role in Stoicism. Cosmopolitanism was, in part, a consequence of the rejection of society and its conventions. Cynics considered themselves to be "of the world" or of nature, not belonging to any nation or state whose land they might happen to occupy. They specifically antagonized the elitism of the concept of national citizenship and, in declaring themselves citizens of the world, made it clear that their way of life could be taken up by anyone without such artificial boundaries.
This might sound like liberal rhetoric, but it's very important to understanding the origins of Stoicism and the root of its ethical system.
Without cosmopolitanism, Zeno of Citium would never have taught philosophy. Zeno, the founder of Stoicism, was a dark-skinned immigrant to Athens. His mentor, Crates of Thebes, was a Cynic. Through Crates, Zeno was able to obtain a deeper education in philosophy and pass on his ideas to his followers. This idea of cosmopolitanism became a mainstay in the Stoic philosophy of justice, transforming itself into a form of radical egalitarianism.
Zeno described what his ideal cosmopolitan society would look like in his version of "Republic." While only fragments of this work and its exegesis from his students survived, these fragments on their own tell us quite a bit about the consequences of Zeno's ideas.
Beyond this, Zeno mitigated the asceticism of the Cynics by affirming that some things, such as wealth, could have value if they were used for good ends, such as funding schools. As Stoicism progressed, Stoics mostly remained in agreement with Cynic doctrine, often considering the homeless nudists of Cynicism to be practicing genuine virtue. They never abandoned the underlying ascetic ideas entirely and, for the most part, seemed to consider the Cynics' lifestyles as compatible with Stoicism, even if not all Stoics lived in the way that Cynicism demanded.
There was some disagreement, however. Later Stoics would criticize asceticism as being irrationally preoccupied with fleeing pleasure. While there might not be value or reason in collecting, for example, an expensive vase, Stoics still believed that one could have such a possession without moral corruption. The Cynics might dismiss the vase as valueless, and the Stoics would agree, but the Stoics did not see owning such a vase as necessarily harmful.
== Natural Purpose ==
A key idea to Stoicism, which has its roots in Cynicism, is a focus on Nature. Nature, in this context, is not wilderness. Rather, "Nature" is a general term that refers to the natural, physical world.
Stoicism was a predecessor of and a major influence on epistemic rationalism, holding that logic alone is the source of all truth. They also adopted the moral rationalism of Socrates, holding that reason could give us insight into important moral truths. The way that reason could lead to moral knowledge, to the Cynics and the Stoics, was through rationally analyzing Nature.
Similar to biological functionalism and evolutionary teleonomy, the Stoics believed in natural purposes. A heart's natural purpose, for instance, is to pump blood. A leg's natural purpose is locomotion. An eye's natural purpose is to see.
Reason's natural purpose included both practical reason and theoretical reason. Under practical reason, one should be able to work towards long-term goals even if this means rejecting immediate gratification, and this is tied to the virtues of temperance and courage. Under theoretical reason, one should be proficient in logic, in understanding the world around them, as well as in knowing what things are and are not useful or valuable, and this is tied to the virtues of prudence and justice.
Due to the fact that practical reason is responsible for discipline, reason was viewed as a kind of ruler of the whole of an individual person. At least, reason's natural purpose was thought to be such. Despite this, people could still think and act contrary to reason, which was considered to be unnatural. While this was expected to some extent from children, since they are still maturing and developing, an adult who acts irrationally would be considered to be acting against their own ideal human nature.
== Virtues of Dispassion ==
Irrationality was thought to mostly be the product of the "pathon," which is variously translated in English as passions or emotions. The passions were often divided between irrational aversions and appraisals, as well as whether the object of these temperaments was in the past or the future. They could then be further divided to name almost every human emotion, aside from the emotions that were considered to be a part of the eupathon. The eupathon are not really morally relevant to this topic, in my opinion, so I am omitting them here.
The passions are a somewhat difficult concept to translate correctly. Ancient Greeks did not have the same psychological concepts that modern English speakers have. Passions were understood more as a kind of judgment, usually an erroneous or mistaken assumption about value. "Passion" was, in essence, a form of what we might call "emotional reasoning."
Due to the fact that the Stoics adopted the moral rationalism of Socrates, they fully believed that objective value could be ascertained through reason alone. Emotions (and "moral intuitions") merely obscured morality and were not considered to be valid sources of truth. Logic was the source of truth, after all, and it was considered the responsibility of the individual to live up to that natural purpose by studying and mastering logic.
Displays of excessive emotion were seen as the product of passion and a lack of discipline. Laughter in particular was often singled out as a sign of stupidity to the ancient Stoics. This is where capital "S" Stoicism gets its association with lowercase "s" stoicism. It's why Stoics are often stereotyped as inexpressive, often to the point of being comically serious or having nerves of steel. Of course, in practice, not all Stoics lived up to or even sought out these extremes.
A lack of passion or emotion was called apatheia, translated as apathy, dispassion, or emotionlessness. It was not normally sought out for its own sake, but it was thought to be a direct product of a mature person living in accordance with their rational nature.
[1/2]